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The Russo-Ukrainian War: From the bestselling author of Chernobyl

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Mearsheimers advies werd niet opgevolgd. In plaats daarvan zette de Clinton-regering Kiev onder druk om de in Oekraïne aanwezige kernwapens aan Rusland af te staan. Na lang wikken en wegen gaf Oekraïne zijn kernwapens inderdaad op, in ruil voor de belofte van de permanente leden van de VN-Veiligheidsraad (met inbegrip van Rusland) om de Oekraïense soevereiniteit te eerbiedigen — vastgelegd in het Boedapest-memorandum van 1994. In aanvulling hierop tekenden Jeltsin en Kuchma in 1997 een ‘vriendschapsverdrag’ om het probleem van de Russische Zwarte Zee-vloot op de Krim voorlopig te regelen. Ondanks het Boedapest-memorandum en het ‘vriendschapsverdrag’, kon Oekraïne zich nooit volledig veilig wanen voor Russische geopolitieke ambities (te meer niet omdat het ‘vriendschapsverdrag’ strandde in de Russische Doema). Oekraïne zocht daarom, in navolging van Polen en Tsjechië, voor zijn veiligheid in toenemende mate toenadering tot de Navo.

In Chapter One, Plokhylays out his central contention: that the “myth of Russia’s Kyivan origins had already embedded itself in the consciousness of the Russian elites by the late fifteenth century.” The centrality of Ukraine to Russia’s idea of itself, he writes, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union: “The role of Ukraine in bringing about the Soviet collapse can hardly be exaggerated. Not only was it a key political actor pushing for Imperial Collapse the dissolution of the USSR, but it also helped to ensure a peaceful disintegration.” I may say this book is a grand one for finding problems of definition – what is an annexation? What is a valid referendum? What is an independent republic? What is democracy? Decolonisation looks different if you are part of the metropole (Russia) or one of the colonies (Ukraine). In the first case, nostalgia for past greatness easily inspires revanchism – seeking to aggressively recover lost territory. In the second case, the fall of empire opens up the vision for a better future. In Bucharest, NATO considered Ukraine’s and Georgia’s applications for a membership action plan, a roadmap to full membership. Although supported by the US and Eastern European member states, they were turned down after pressure from Russia, which made its unhappiness known publicly.

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In exchange, it received economic aid and the beautiful words of the Budapest Memorandum of 1994: Russia, the United Kingdom and the US would respect Ukraine’s territorial integrity, independence and sovereignty – and refrain from using military force or economic coercion against the country. These promises, of course, turned out to be worthless. Nach Gorbatschow musste sich die Sowjetunion neu ordnen, oder das, was von ihr übrig war. „Im November 1988 erklärte Estland als erste Sowjetrepublk seine Souveränität.“ 1991 stimmte die Mehrheit der Ukrainer für die Unabhängigkeit. Selbst in Russlands Herzen gab es Bestrebungen nach mehr Demokratie, bevor Jelzin 1993 sein eigenes Parlament unter Beschuss nehmen ließ. In Russland geht es nie ohne Gewalt ab. Und Moskau will nicht begreifen oder einsehen, dass niemand freiwillig auf seinem Schoß sitzt. Wen es nicht mit Waffengewalt in Schach hält, der läuft davon und das so schnell wie möglich. When Russia illegally annexed Crimea in 2014 and helped unleash a proxy war in Donbas in the east of the country, Ukraine had to face its aggressive neighbour alone. Plokhy’s account of both the annexation of Crimea and the mobilisation of separatists in Donbas eschews shades of grey. At the time of writing this review, we still await the big Ukrainian counter-offensive. On its success or failure will depend the future course of the war. In February, when the detailed planning for the Big Push was already starting, President Volodymyr Zelenskiy told me how nervous he was about it. Such frankness is typical of him. A charming, natural-seeming former actor, he has brought his professional abilities to the job of representing Ukraine at the highest level: providing the roar, he says, channelling Winston Churchill. The world's foremost historian of Ukraine. . . the chronicler of a country on the front lines of a seismic European war' Financial Times

While Plokhy’s surefooted interpretation of the genesis of this war will help dispel misconceptions, his detailed reconstruction of its first ten months provides important groundwork for a future historical appraisal of this war. Der Verfasser erzählt und erklärt mit Herzblut. Er macht deutlich, dass sich die Welt verändert hat und Moskau sich nicht mehr alles erlauben kann. Er sagt aber auch, dass es ein Fehler der freien Welt war, auf die Annexion der Krim bloß mit lauwarmen Worten zu reagieren, nur um Russland nicht zu erzürnen, denn, „mit der Annexion der Krim wurden Imperialismus und Nationalismus zu zentralen Elementen und Triebkräften der russischen Außenpolitik“. Ebenso war es ein krasser Fehler, der Ukraine auf dem Bukarest-Gipfel 2008 den Weg in die Nato zu verweigern, denn dadurch war die Ukraine, die zuvor auf ihr Atomwaffenarsenal verzichtet hatte, schutzlos. Doch die Souveränität der Ukraine ist wichtig für Europa und für den Frieden in der ganzen Welt. Plokhy stellt natürlich auch dar, wie sich China positioniert, wie die USA, wie Indien, der ferne Osten, die europäischen Länder - und erklärt auch warum.A significant early figure in Kyivan Rus' history is Rurik, the founder of the Rurikid dynasty. His grandson, Vladimir (the Great) is Russia's patron saint. Vladimir was born circa 960AD. In 970AD Rurik granted the Grand Duchy of Novgorod to his illegitimate son, Vladimir, making Vladimir the Grand Prince of Novgorod. In 972AD Vladimir's older and legitimate half-brother, Yaropolk, was given Kiev and became Grand Prince of Kyiv. Whatever happens, historians will draw on this book when assessing the history of this war. Alongside journalists such as Anna Arutunyan, Luke Harding and Owen Matthews, Plokhy has provided an invaluable first draft of a history of this war. Het idee dat Oekraïne tot de Navo zou kunnen toetreden, belastte de verhoudingen van het westen met Rusland vanaf eind jaren negentig. Voor Polen, Tsjechië en Hongarije was toetreding tot de Navo een voorwaarde geweest om zich veilig te kunnen voelen tegenover Russisch revanchisme. “After decades of Soviet domination,” legde de Poolse president Lech Walesa uit, “we are all afraid of Russia.” Hij voegde eraan toe: “If Russia again adopts an aggressive foreign policy, this aggression will be directed against Ukraine and Poland.” (75) Zonder lidmaatschap, zo hadden Poolse diplomaten al in 1992 gewaarschuwd, zou Polen zich genoodzaakt zien kernwapens te bemachtigen. Ook de Oekraïense lidmaatschapsambities werden in die jaren vaak in dit licht bezien. “Some [in Washington] were prepared to offer membership to the Ukrainians as a carrot to give up their nuclear arsenal,” aldus Plokhy. (77) Met het al genoemde Boedapest-memorandum deed Oekraïne echter afstand van kernwapens zonder daarvoor harde veiligheidsgaranties terug te krijgen. Fazit: Serhii Plokhys „Der Angriff“ zeichnet sich durch Allgemeinverständlichkeit aus, Zahlen und Fakten sind unvermeidlich, vor allem, wenn der Autor auf einzelne Militäraktionen kommt, aber er erklärt auch vieles, so, dass man den skrupellosen Angriff auch dann versteht, wenn man kein Historiker ist.

Anders dan in Rusland wist het parlement in Oekraïne met vallen en opstaan wél een sterke positie te verwerven tegenover de uitvoerende macht. De vreedzame machtswisseling na de presidentsverkiezingen van 1994, van Leonid Kravtsjoek naar Leonid Kuchma, was een belangrijke eerste mijlpaal in de democratische ontwikkeling van de voormalige sovjetrepubliek. Voor de goede orde: Kuchma bleek als president allesbehalve een voorbeeldige democraat. Net als Jeltsin in Moskou, probeerde hij de grondwet naar zijn hand te zetten. Anders dan Jeltsin, slaagde hij daarin echter niet. Tien jaar later, in 2004, lukte het Kuchma evenmin om Viktor Janoekovitsj, de corrupte pro-Russische gouverneur van Donetsk, tot zijn opvolger te benoemen. Hoe corrupt en verdeeld Oekraïne ook was, de meeste Oekraïners eisten democratie en velen bleken bereid hiervoor hun nek uit te steken tijdens de eerste Maidan-protesten na de gemanipuleerde verkiezingen van 2004. Rusland raakte langzaam maar zeker de greep op Oekraïne steeds meer kwijt. While it is not entirely clear from Plokhy’s account why this war broke out when it did, his narrative demolishes the popular notion that somehow NATO was to blame. At least, not in the way this thesis is usually understood. Aber selbst wenn sich die Hoffnungen der Ukraine auf unangefochtene Souveränität nicht erfüllen, hat Russland sich entlarvt. Es wird schwierig werden, die Welt davon zu überzeugen, dass man seiner Regierung/Regime trauen kann. The invasion flowed from Putin’s warped imperial thinking. He believed Ukraine to be a part of “historical Russia”. In summer 2021, he published an essay setting out his so-called ideas. After two decades in power, Russia’s dictator-president had become increasingly obsessed with his long-dead predecessors. Portraits of Peter I and Catherine II “made their way” into the Kremlin’s antechamber.

Plokhy prefers “Russo-Ukrainian war” to alternatives like “ Russia’s war against Ukraine”. While the latter expression is well suited to emphasising Russia’s culpability in this war, the former stresses that Ukraine is not just a victim of Russia, but its equal. I wonder whether he can foresee the disintegration of the Russian Federation as it is currently constituted – especially in a context where Russia is seemingly recruiting its military disproportionately from its Muslim peoples and peripheral autonomous republics. “The process of disintegration has already started,” he replies. “Already Russia doesn’t control its constitutional territory” – by which he means that some parts of Ukraine that were formally adopted as part of the Russian Federation last autumn in the wake of the full-scale invasion, such as Kherson, have already been liberated and restored to Ukrainian hands. But yes, he says, republics on the edges of the federation – such as Tuva, Buryatia and Sakha, not to mention Chechnya, are vulnerable. “The longer the war goes on, the stronger the narrative that Russia is using them as cannon fodder.”

In 1240AD Batu Khan's Mongolian "Golden Horde" invaded the Byzantine Empire centered at Constantinople. The disruption Constantinople's ability to serve as the Kyivan Rus' protector and regional power shifted toward the Duchy of Muscovy, which would expand to incorporate much of the Kievan 'Rus territory. Plokhy is the foremost chronicler of early and modern Ukraine and the author of numerous books. They include The Gates of Europe, Lost Kingdom, The Man With the Poison Gun and Chernobyl, a compelling account of the 1986 nuclear disaster, which won the 2018 Baillie Gifford prize. His work is rigorous and objective, and also wonderfully readable and lucid. Plokhy maakt in opeenvolgende hoofdstukken duidelijk hoe vanaf 1991 de politieke ontwikkeling van Rusland en Oekraïne steeds verder uiteenliep, een divergente ontwikkeling die de dynamiek tussen Moskou en Kiev diepgaand zou gaan beïnvloeden. Terwijl het democratische experiment in Rusland een kort leven was beschoren, schoot deze in Oekraïne geleidelijk aan wortel (in weerwil van de wijdverbreide corruptie en van Russische beïnvloeding).Ukraine, meanwhile, is fighting for its survival. The invasion turbo-charged a process of decolonisation, which began in 1991, and accelerated in 2014 when Putin annexed Crimea. Statues have been toppled, Pushkin and assorted Moscow generals carried away. A plaque to the Soviet writer Mikhail Bulgakov – who opposed Ukrainian independence – has disappeared from the medical academy in Kyiv where he studied. Man kann in einer Rezension das Gesamtgeschehen nicht zusammenfassen, dazu ist es zu komplex. Man kann höchstens das Faß anstechen. Fest steht, die Weltordnung ist dabei, sich zu verändern und wir sollten uns durch Zeitunglesen und Sachbuch so umfassend informieren wie möglich. Weil es uns alle angeht. Serhii Plokhy endet mit den Worten: „Unter enorm hohen Kosten und mit einem gewaltigen Blutzoll ihrer Bürger beendet die Ukraine die Ära russischer Dominanz in einem großen Teil Osteuropas und stellt Moskaus Anspruch auf die Vormacht im restlichen postsowjetischen Raum infrage.“ The Russo-Ukrainian War stelt niet teleur. Plokhy toont zich betrokken zonder zijn professionele standaard als historicus te verlagen. Het is een verhelderende uiteenzetting die boven alles duidelijk maakt dat de Russische aanval op Oekraïne van februari 2022 eigenlijk al zo’n drie decennia in de lucht hing. So far, Russia’s brazen challenge to a US-led system has failed. Putin expected the west to grudgingly accept his pan-Ukraine takeover, as it did with Crimea. Instead, the invasion gave rise to an extraordinary anti-Kremlin coalition. It rebooted Nato, with Finland and Sweden joining, and confirmed Washington’s status as the world’s pre-eminent power. It saw Boris Johnson emerge as Kyiv’s mop-headed champion.

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