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Even the “aha” moment itself might be accessible to study in non-verbal subjects, given the expected physiological emotional response that follows it. We know that many animals show an emotional response while learning how to solve tasks (independent from the presence of a reward; e.g., cows, Hagen and Broom, 2004; goats, Langbein et al., 2004; horses, Mengoli et al., 2014; dogs, McGowan et al., 2014; dolphins, Clark et al., 2013). Studying insight through the presentation of a solution would thus require both a behavioral analysis (as in traditional contrafreeloading tests or yoked experimental designs; e.g., Hagen and Broom, 2004; Rosenberger et al., 2020) as well as a physiological one. Artificially altering the transparency of the path toward the solution, and altering the time spent at an apparent impasse, may allow us to predict and modify the intensity of the respective physiological (as it would be an increased heart rate; Hill and Kemp, 2018) and behavioral responses (e.g., in dogs, we would predict pupil dilation, tail wagging, and increased general activity; McGowan et al., 2014; Webb et al., 2019; Salvi et al., 2020). Conclusion Friedlander, Kathryn J.; Fine, Philip A. (2016). "The Grounded Expertise Components Approach in the Novel Area of Cryptic Crossword Solving". Frontiers in Psychology. 7: 567. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00567. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 4853387. PMID 27199805. Shen, W.; Yuan, Y.; Liu, C.; etal. (2015). "In search of the 'Aha!' experience: Elucidating the emotionality of insight problem-solving". British Journal of Psychology. 107 (2): 281–298. doi: 10.1111/bjop.12142. PMID 26184903. According to the dual-process theory, there are two systems that people use to solve problems. [22] The first involves logical and analytical thought processes based on reason, while the second involves intuitive and automatic processes based on experience. [22] Research has demonstrated that insight probably involves both processes; however, the second process is more influential. [22] Three-process theory [ edit ]

The subpersonal nature of model reduction (that is, there is no explicit inner model, hence no conscious experience of the reduction process) could explain why the agent becomes aware at the precise instance of a new association, and not before ( Metcalfe and Wiebe, 1987; Friston et al., 2017; Shen et al., 2018). Another proposed explanation for the relation of insight with consciousness is the asymmetrical involvement of both hemispheres and the important role of the right hemisphere in key parts of the process (see split brain perception studies, e.g., Gazzaniga, 1998; van Steenburgh et al., 2012). Furthermore, the conscious perception of the solution is plausible considering the close relationship between associative learning and consciousness ( Ginsburg and Jablonka, 2007, 2019) and the essential role of consciousness for the former to occur (e.g., Baars et al., 2013; Meuwese et al., 2013; Weidemann et al., 2016). Non-Human Animals, Problems, and Solutions the act or result of understanding the inner nature of things or of seeing intuitively (called noesis in Greek)Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Bradley, Nigel (2007). Marketing Research: Tools and Techniques. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928196-1. a b Metcalfe, Janet; Wiebe, David (1987). "Intuition in insight and noninsight problem solving". Memory & Cognition. 15 (3): 238–246. doi: 10.3758/BF03197722. PMID 3600264. Differences in brain activation in the left and right hemisphere seem to be indicative of insight versus non-insight solutions. [19] Presenting RATs either to the left or right visual field, it was shown that participants having solved the problem with insight were more likely to have been shown the RAT on the left visual field, indicating right hemisphere processing. This provides evidence that the right hemisphere plays a special role in insight. [19]

a b Wagner, Ullrich; Gais, Steffen; Haider, Hilde; etal. (22 January 2004). "Sleep inspires insight". Nature. 427 (6972): 352–355. Bibcode: 2004Natur.427..352W. doi: 10.1038/nature02223. PMID 14737168. S2CID 4405704. According to the three-process theory, intelligence plays a large role in insight. [29] Specifically, insight involves three processes that require intelligence to apply them to problems: [29] selective encoding focusing attention on ideas relevant to a solution, while ignoring features that are irrelevant selective combination combining the information previously deemed relevant selective comparison the use of past experience with problems and solutions that are applicable to the current problem and solution Four-stage model [ edit ] The main theoretical proposals to explain insight largely differ with regards to the amount of conscious processing they describe involved in an insightful event. For example, approaches, such as the representational change theory (also called the redistribution theory; ( Ohlsson, 1992, 2011; Knoblich et al., 1999), advocate a completely unconscious redistribution of information ( Knoblich et al., 1999; Ohlsson, 2011), whereas the progress monitoring theory (or criterion for satisfactory progress theory; MacGregor et al., 2001; Chu et al., 2007) proposes insight through a conscious process: searching consciously among a pool of possible solutions during which wrongful presumptions are dropped in favor of a working solution.A large-scale study in Australia suggests that insight may not be universally experienced, with almost 20% of respondents reporting that they had not experienced insight. [23] Metacognition [ edit ] Moncrieff, J. (2015). "Antipsychotic Maintenance Treatment: Time to Rethink?". PLOS Med. 12 (8): e1001861. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001861. PMC 4524699. PMID 26241954. a b Davidson, J. E.; Sternberg, R. J. (1 April 1984). "The Role of Insight in Intellectual Giftedness". Gifted Child Quarterly. 28 (2): 58–64. doi: 10.1177/001698628402800203. S2CID 145767981. a b c Gilhooly, K.J.; Murphy, P. (1 August 2005). "Differentiating insight from non-insight problems". Thinking & Reasoning. 11 (3): 279–302. doi: 10.1080/13546780442000187. S2CID 144379831. Hadamard, Jacques (1954) [1945]. An essay on the psychology of invention in the mathematical field. New York, N.Y.: Dover Publ. LCCN 54-4731.

Harrow, M.; Jobe, T.H.; Faull, R.N. (October 2012). "Do all schizophrenia patients need antipsychotic treatment continuously throughout their lifetime? A 20-year longitudinal study". Psychological Medicine. 42 (10): 2145–55. doi: 10.1017/S0033291712000220. PMID 22340278. S2CID 29641445. Additionally, while incubation improves insight performance for individuals, it improves insight performance for groups even more. [21] Thus, after a 15-minute break, individual performance improved for the rebus puzzles with unhelpful clues, and group performance improved for rebus puzzles with both unhelpful and helpful clues. [21] Individual differences [ edit ] Tennen, Howard; Suls, Jerry, eds. (2013). Handbook of Psychology. Vol.5: Personality and Social Psychology. New Jersey: Wiley. p.53. a b c d Lin, Wei-Lun; Hsu, Kung-Yu; Chen, Hsueh-Chih; etal. (2011). "The relations of gender and personality traits on different creativities: A dual-process theory account". Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. 6 (2): 112–123. doi: 10.1037/a0026241. S2CID 55632785. Today we know that insight is a measurable phenomenon with a physiological basis that is beginning to be revealed ( Shen et al., 2018). Moreover, it makes little sense to set the phenomenon apart from associative learning and experience ( Shettleworth, 2010, 2012; Hanus et al., 2011; Call, 2013; Shen et al., 2018; Ebel et al., 2020). Insight does not mean developing de novo behaviors to solve a problem, but to find a solution by restructuring the problem, even if the agent reorganizes old experiences to apply them to a novel context.The third and final type of problem requires verbal ability to solve. An example is the Remote Associates Test (RAT), [8] in which people must think of a word that connects three, seemingly unrelated, words. [10] RAT are often used in experiments, because they can be solved both with and without insight. [11] Specific results [ edit ] Versus non-insight problems [ edit ] Model reduction occurs neither only during sleep, nor only in humans. Rats that move away from exploratory or spatial foraging behavior, and enter short periods of rest, have been found to have hippocampal activity similar to what we would expect in models undergoing insight-compatible changes ( Gupta et al., 2010; Pezzulo et al., 2014; Friston et al., 2017). Internally generated sequences (sequences of multi-neuron firing activity that do not reflect an ongoing behavioral sequence) seem to be able to restructure models, not only consolidating memory but also exploring potential solutions ( Pezzulo et al., 2014). The Eureka Experience