China: A History

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In the Camps is designed to give a feel for the human experience of having the ground pulled out from under you in every conceivable way. Forms of movement become constrained, everything you’re doing is watched. People are disappearing into camps, but also going silent because of fear of being targeted. It’s an incredibly important story, because of the impact it has on the people involved. Also—and this is something Byler gets at—while it’s a very distinctive and unusual story, it’s not an isolated one. This is an extreme example, with both the assault on the Uyghurs and on Islam as a religion, but the effort to control forms of difference is something that’s happening in other places across China, too. The Neolithic period saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The Erlitou culture in the central plains of China is sometimes identified with the Xia dynasty (3rd millennium BCE) of traditional Chinese historiography. The earliest surviving written Chinese dates to roughly 1250 BCE, consisting of divinations inscribed on oracle bones. Chinese bronze inscriptions, ritual texts dedicated to ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing. The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese include poetry, divination, and records of official speeches. China is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display an already-mature written language. The culture remembered by the earliest extant literature is that of the Zhou dynasty ( c. 1046–256 BCE), China's Axial age, during which the Mandate of Heaven was introduced, and foundations laid for philosophies such as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and Wuxing. The Song dynasty was also a period of major innovation in the history of warfare. Gunpowder, while invented in the Tang dynasty, was first put into use in battlefields by the Song army, inspiring a succession of new firearms and siege engines designs. During the Southern Song dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding the Yangtze and Huai River against the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral's headquarters established at Dinghai. Paddle-wheel warships equipped with trebuchets could launch incendiary bombs made of gunpowder and lime, as recorded in Song's victory over the invading Jin forces at the Battle of Tangdao in the East China Sea, and the Battle of Caishi on the Yangtze River in 1161. Foot, Rosemary (2019). "Remembering the past to secure the present: Versailles legacies in a resurgent China". International Affairs. 95 (1): 143–160. doi: 10.1093/ia/iiy211.

There are also chapters, such as one by Zhang Jishun, that focus on very different kinds of people. Her contribution is a profile of an actress, Shangguan Yunzhu, who was a film star in the late 1940s in Shanghai, where Zhang is based, who later had to be re-educated to become a literary worker in the new China. It talks about the ups and downs of the star’s career and the ways in which she ran afoul of the new government. In the process, it introduces you to the world of film before 1949, and of political struggles after 1949. Kaifung Jews". University of Cumbria, Division of Religion and Philosophy. Archived from the original on 28 October 2008.Bodde, Derk (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in". In Twitchett, Dennis; Loewe, Michael (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. If you want to understand the culture and history of China, you’ve got to read Peter Hessler. He’s published four books on China, including the highly acclaimed ‘Oracle Bones’ in 2006. This book draws on personal and historical narratives and stunning descriptions of Chinese life spanning from the ancient to modern China. Peter Hessler connects with ordinary Chinese locals who have felt the impact of political issues such as the Cultural Revolution. They include his former students, the archaeologist Chen Mengjia who committed suicide during the Cultural Revolution, and a Uighur dissident who fled to the USA, among others. This eye-opening book offers a precious glimpse into the lives of China’s hard-working people. You’re sure to head straight for Peter Hessler’s other books on China after reading this one. Further information: History of the Han dynasty Western Han Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC

Yu Hua says “If I were to try to attend each and every aspect of modern China, there would be no end to this endeavour, and the book would go on longer than The Thousand and One Nights. So I limit myself to just ten words.” With this foundation, Yu Hua covers Chinese culture, history, politics and society. He opens up the mysteries of modern China by sharing a witty and refreshing Chinese perspective. As one of the country’s most famous contemporary writers, you can’t miss reading this masterpiece.The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. [33] Like Shangdi, Heaven ( tian) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. [34] It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven. In AD 9 the usurper Wang Mang claimed that the Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23. Political and intellectual ferment waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. According to Patricia Ebrey: Youngs, R. (2002). The European Union and the Promotion of Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924979-4. .

In 1989 the death of former general secretary Hu Yaobang helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when Army troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, with considerable numbers of fatalities. This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government. [94] [95] China: Free Xinjiang 'Political Education' Detainees". Human Rights Watch. 10 September 2017 . Retrieved 10 September 2017. Major military campaigns were launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire, limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states in the Tarim Basin, opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire. Yes, it’s very timely, with the diplomatic boycott by the United States—and other countries—of the Olympics. This is due to multiple concerns about China, including Peng Shuai. But I think if there was one thing to point to, it’s Xinjiang. It’s become a focus in the way that in 2008, when there was talk about a potential boycott, Tibet was the place that came to mind. That they are connected stories comes out in the book. It’s not an isolated thing: some of the methods now being used in Xinjiang were tried out in Tibet or against Falun Gong members. The Party keeps experimenting with and refining techniques and technologies of control. There are also echoes of Mao-era reeducation camps in this as well.Leadership Strategies, Economic Activity, and Interregional Interaction: Social Complexity in Northeast China, p.89 RELATED CONTENT: 6 local and immersive food experiences you can do with Trafalgar in China 5. The Souls of China: The Return of Religion After Mao by Ian Johnson Image credit: Penguin Random House The incredible revival of religion in China began in 1982. The Communist Party allowed the small-scale practice of religion under strict government watch. Today, over 300 million Chinese now practice a faith and villages and cities are dotted with churches, temples and mosques. Johnson delved into this resurgence, spending six years living with three religious communities, including Protestants, Buddhists and Daoists. He speaks to Chinese locals to get their perspective on spirituality and discovers a great reawakening of faith in China. Boltz, William G. (February 1986). "Early Chinese Writing, World Archaeology". Early Writing Systems. 17 (3): 420–436. In the 19th century the empire was internally restive and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by the British Empire in the First Opium War (1840) led to the Treaty of Nanking (1842), under which Hong Kong was ceded to Britain and importation of opium (produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Opium usage continued to grow in China, adversely affecting societal stability. Subsequent military defeats and unequal treaties with other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty.